CRCB Chapter 11

Summary

The old saying “A picture is worth a thousand words” is true. Visual aids are helpful because most people learn visually. They are learning aids, used to support the main idea by enhancing and clarifying the text. There are many different types of visual aids, including charts and tables, diagrams, illustrations, graphs and photographs. Charts and tables present a large amount of data in an easy to read format. Diagrams show connections between ideas. Illustrations show parts and sections of anatomy and objects. Graphs make large amounts of information easily accessible. Mind maps are a recent innovation, which are created in a free-form style. I use mind maps to connect ideas and organize thoughts for school compositions.

Exercises

1. According to the excerpt, drug therapy is defined as

The control of psychological disorders through drugs.

2. Which of the following best describes synapses?

Sites where nerve impulses travel from one neuron to another.

3. Antipsychotic drugs are

Used to reduce sever symptoms of mental disturbance.

4. Which of the following types of drugs are most frequently prescribed by physicians?

Antidepressant drugs

5. _______ is a drug use to treat bipolar disorder.

Lithium

6. One of the biggest changes to occur in mental hospitals was due to the introduction of ______.

Antipsychotic drugs

7. Antianxiety drugs eliminate the anxiety a person experiences. True or false?

False

8. St. John’s Wort is a drug that has proved effective in treating depression. True or false?

False

9. Antidepressant drugs were discovered by accident. True or false?

True

10. Drug therapy works by altering the operation of neurotransmittors and neurons in the brain. True or false?

True

TFY Chapter 12

Summary

Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from a set of facts. We learn deductive reasoning by studying formal logic. Deductive reasoning differs from inductive reasoning in that inductive reasoning draws an inference from a set of facts, while deductive reasoning evaluates the relationship of facts, called premises. An example of deductive reasoning goes as follows:

All dogs bark. – This is a description of a class, which is dog.
Lassie is a dog. – Lassie is a member of the class.
Lassie barks. – This is the inference made from the premises.

The first two sentences are premises. The third sentence is reasoning of the premises, called a conclusion. The form of the arguments and reasoning is called a syllogism. The first premise is the major premise, and the second is the minor premise. There must be rules for deductive reasoning to determine validity and soundness. The conclusion above is valid because Lassie is a member of a class that barks. However, in invalid conclusion can be reached if the following premises are followed:

All dogs bark.
Lassie barks.
Lassie is a dog.

It is not valid to conclude that Lassie is a dog. Lassie may be another animal that barks. Soundness is the result of premises being true and the conclusion being correct. The second syllogism is unsound because, while the facts are true, the conclusion is faulty. But, premises and conclusions are not always explicitly syllogisms. I bought a Toyota because I think Toyotas are good cars, so when I was shopping for a car, a syllogism went as follows:

All Hondas are good cars.
This car is a Honda.
This is a good car.

This deductive reasoning may be unconscious, but it may be the reason you buy the car. Many decisions are made this way.

Exercises

1. A premise is a reason given to support a conclusion.

True

2. Syllogisms are used in logic because logicians like to make their knowledge arcane, or hidden and secret.

Syllogisms are used in logic because logicians like to make their arguments clearly visible for study and review.

3. Logic is less concerned with truth than with whether one statement follows reasonably from another.

True

4. Reasoning only occurs in deduction – not in induction.

Reasoning occurs in deduction as well as in induction

5. A generalization reached through induction can be a premise used in a deductive syllogism.

True

6. “All homeowners are taxpayers. He is a property owner. Therefore, he is a taxpayer.” This is a valid argument.

True

7. “Bloodletting reduces fever. This patient has a fever. This patient needs bloodletting.” This syllogism shows valid reasoning although both premises may not be true.

True

8. “White-skinned people are superior to dark-skinned people. Therefore, it is manifest destiny of white-skinned people to rule dark-skinned people.” No country could ever accept such fallacious reasoning as this.

This fallacious reasoning, accepted in the past, has been rejected in the vast majority of nations, but may still exist.

CRCB Chapter 1

Summary

Reading is a form of communication using written language, meant to induce thought Concentration is required to get the most out of reading. This is a discipline of “making the mind behave” that gives reading and learning with a purpose. This makes reading an active process. Active reading involves making use of prior knowledge. Reading journals and other books helps expand this knowledge. A reading journal is an active learning task, helping you to understand how you learn by showing where the difficulties are. Concentration is purposeful focus and blocking out of distractions. Learn what your internal and external distractions are.

Exercises

1. Copying down everything the professor says.

P – Most professors don’t expect you to write down everything they say. Active listeners listen intently and choose carefully what to take notes on.

2. Revising lecture notes.

A - Revising notes makes them easier to understand and formats them in a more efficient way.

3. Reviewing sections of your textbook and reciting information.

A – This helps you to reinforce what you have learned.

4. Reading each chapter straight through.

P – Reading straight through will cause loss of concentration and you may not ask important questions.

5. Always begin by previewing each chapter and developing questions to help you focus.

A – Previewing will help you be more involved and prepared to connect ideas.

6. Testing yourself on the information in your notes.

A – This is an excellent way to reinforce you knowledge.

TFY Chapter 11

Summary

Inductive reasoning is a method to uncover new information of supply missing information. Induction applies logic from facts about members of a class and draws conclusions. Inductive fallacies include hasty generalizations or jumping to a conclusion, and either-or logic, which oversimplifies. Questionable statistics cannot be verified or are false. Evidence must be consistent with the reasoning or is fallacious. Loaded questions are biased and unfair, seeking a predetermined answer. False analogies are another fallacy that ignores significant differences. False cause presents connections between occurrences without supporting evidence. The slippery slope argument makes a claim that a single event will set off an inevitable chain of events.

Exercises

1. All riders in a Boston suburb pay for their rides with special credit cards. All busses are equipped with electronic scanners that record account number, route, time and date. The American public is being conditioned to complete Big Brother surveillance of the future.

Slippery slope

2. The French and the German objections to importing British beef are purely a matter of their stubborn national pride. There is no reason to believe that this beef would infect any of their citizens with mad cow disease.

False cause

3. Any regulations that dampen corporate profits in the oil and coal industries will backfire because environmental preservation depends heavily on the health of the American economy. The richer the United States is, the more it can help poorer countries with their pollution problems.

False cause

4. Some people hesitate to have children because the expense and trouble. The trouble of having children is entirely secondary to the blessing.

NF

5. Legalizing marijuana would reduce the price by 50 percent.

Questionable statistic

6. The reason that I did not stop at that light was because it was two o’clock in the morning.

False cause

7. If the baseball players start using drugs, then so will the managers, and the next thing you know is that all the games will be fixed and baseball will no longer be a real American sport.

Slippery slope

8. You should never lie to your partner, although a little white lie never hurts.

Contradiction

9. A CA investigation found no evidence linking its employee, agents, or operatives with the crack cocaine epidemic in the U.S. and no connection between the agency and three men at the center of that drug trade .The findings…dispute allegations made by the San Jose Mercury News in 1996 of a CIA link to cocaine trafficking in California. The CIA released the first of two volumes of conclusions reached by agency Inspector General Frederick Hitz, who led a 17-member team that reviewed 250,000 pages of documents and conducted 365 interviews.

NF

10. All people are equal but some deserve more privilege.

Inconsistency

CRCB Chapter 8

Summary

An author chooses a method of organization according his purposes. Organizational patterns include listing, comparison and contrast, analysis, definition and example, cause and effect, and sequence. These patterns each have their own organizational word clues. For listings some examples are first…second, first of all…second, the four levels of…, and one way…another way. Analysis would use features, properties, characteristics, and aspects. For cause and effect, since, because, consequently and affect may be used. Comparison and contrast use however, although and like. Definition and example use is, decipher and translated as. Sequence uses word like first, then and next. Using such words fits different logical patterns in writing. Awareness of these methods can help a reader better understand the material.

Exercises

1. What was the author’s grandmother’s greatest asset?

Her bound feet

2. Why did the sight of bound feet have an erotic effect on men?

Because a woman’s vulnerability brought out a feeling of protectiveness in others who looked at her

3. Why did the grandmother’s mother stick a cloth in the grandmother’s mouth?

To make her stop screaming

4. Based on the reading, the author seems:

Regretful that she could not protect her grandmother

5. According to the author, how long did the process of foot binding last?

Several years

6. According to the author, what would happen when the mother took pity on her daughter and removed the binding cloth?

The daughter would consider her mother weak after enduring scorn

7. How did the practice of foot binding come about?

A concubine of the emperor probably suggested it

8. How would describe the author’s feelings about the practice of foot binding in her family?

The author felt that this practice was cruel

9. What can you infer about the relationship between a husband and his wife in Chine during her grandmother’s youth?

The mother-in-law would be a figure that could interfere with the husband and wife

10. What was the main idea of the reading section?

To show the cruelty of foot binding

TFY Chapter 10

Summary

Fallacies are used to confuse, deceive and manipulate an argument instead of using fair, sound logic. Recognizing fallacies will keep you on the alert for dishonest arguments. There are many different fallacies, which use language, emotion and distractions. Word ambiguity leads people to agree with positions they don’t understand. Prejudicial language slants an argument. Appeals may be made to emotions or to false authorities. Sometimes, personal attacks are made, known as ad hominem attacks. A variation on the ad hominem attack is poisoning the well, the use of negative words to describe the opponent’s position. The red herring is a classic distraction, the use of irrelevant arguments in order to cloud an issue. Pointing out other wrongs also may be used to evade the issue. The straw man argument is a caricaturization of an opponent with a refutation of that caricature. We need to recognize these fallacies in order to get to the truth. Fallacies are an attempt to dodge the truth.

Exercises

1. It was announced today that our troops, who have been shelled for some weeks in Lebanon, have made a strategic transfer to their ships offshore of that country.

Misapplied euphemism

2. In China, Europe and Brazil, efforts are being made to control the population growth that adds 1 billion people to the planet every decade.

NF

3. Africa, the birthplace of humankind, provides a disturbing clue to our future. As I fly across areas that were forests just years ago and see them becoming desert, I worry. Too many people crowd this continent; so poor they strip the land for food and wood for fuel. The subject of my life’s work and our closest living relatives, the chimpanzees, are slaughtered for food or captured for the live-animal trade. Pollution of air, land water abounds.

NF

4. Five million people have already seen this move. Shouldn’t you?
Bandwagon

5. Why do I think the president’s program is sound? It is sound because the polls show that the vast majority supports it.

Bandwagon

6. By a margin of two to one, shoppers prefer Brand X to any of the leading competitors. Reason enough to buy Brand X.
Bandwagon

7. What if your bank fails and takes your savings? Buy diamonds – the safe investment.

Appeal to fear

8. There is virtually no tar in these cigarettes.

Misapplied euphemism

9. It has been estimated that illegal aliens are costing taxpayers in excess of $5 billion a year. Should our senior citizens be denied full healthcare benefits, Should our children suffer overcrowded classrooms in order to subsidize the costs of illegal aliens?

Appeal to fear

10. There are plenty of people out on the streets waiting to get your job. If you go out on strike, you may find yourself out there with them.

Appeal to fear

11. The natural ay to relieve pain is through our vitamin ointment. It relieves pain from burns, stiff neck, backache, swelling and so forth.

Misapplied euphemism

CRCB Chapter 12

Summary

An argument has two parts, a reason and a conclusion. A reason is what supports the conclusion and a conclusion is a judgment, decision or opinion. Some word clues for reasons are in view of the facts, because, as indicated by and finally. Some word clues for conclusions are hence, as a result, shows that, then, and so. Arguments can be identified by these words. There ate two basic kinds of arguments, inductive and deductive. Deductive reasoning involves an instance of a general principal and applies a conclusion. Inductive reasoning involves drawing a general conclusion from several facts. Arguments must be evaluated dependability by verifying the source. Facts must be distinguished from opinion. Fallacious arguments need to be detected. Types of logical fallacies include either/or thinking, hasty generalizations, red herrings, false cause, slippery slope, ad hominem and circular reasoning.

Exercises

1. a. I need to study more effectively. – Conclusion
b. I failed the last exam. – Reason

2. a. I feel much better today. – Reason
b. I must be eating better. – Conclusion

3. a. Therefore, the legislature needs to address the AIDS issue. – Conclusion
b. It is estimated that 1 to 2 million Americans are infected with the virus that causes AIDS. – Reason
c. In 1996 more children and women continued to get AIDS. – Reason

4. a. Jason is guilty. – Conclusion
b. Two eyewitnesses saw Jason commit the crime. – Reason
c. Jason had three pieces of the stolen jewelry in his pocket. – Reason
d. Jason’s fingerprints matched those of the crime scene. – Reason

5. a. The results of exercise include better, more restful sleep. – Reason
b. Exercise lowers the risk of heart attack. – Reason
c. There are several benefits of exercising. – Conclusion