TFY Chapter 10

Summary

Fallacies are used to confuse, deceive and manipulate an argument instead of using fair, sound logic. Recognizing fallacies will keep you on the alert for dishonest arguments. There are many different fallacies, which use language, emotion and distractions. Word ambiguity leads people to agree with positions they don’t understand. Prejudicial language slants an argument. Appeals may be made to emotions or to false authorities. Sometimes, personal attacks are made, known as ad hominem attacks. A variation on the ad hominem attack is poisoning the well, the use of negative words to describe the opponent’s position. The red herring is a classic distraction, the use of irrelevant arguments in order to cloud an issue. Pointing out other wrongs also may be used to evade the issue. The straw man argument is a caricaturization of an opponent with a refutation of that caricature. We need to recognize these fallacies in order to get to the truth. Fallacies are an attempt to dodge the truth.

Exercises

1. It was announced today that our troops, who have been shelled for some weeks in Lebanon, have made a strategic transfer to their ships offshore of that country.

Misapplied euphemism

2. In China, Europe and Brazil, efforts are being made to control the population growth that adds 1 billion people to the planet every decade.

NF

3. Africa, the birthplace of humankind, provides a disturbing clue to our future. As I fly across areas that were forests just years ago and see them becoming desert, I worry. Too many people crowd this continent; so poor they strip the land for food and wood for fuel. The subject of my life’s work and our closest living relatives, the chimpanzees, are slaughtered for food or captured for the live-animal trade. Pollution of air, land water abounds.

NF

4. Five million people have already seen this move. Shouldn’t you?
Bandwagon

5. Why do I think the president’s program is sound? It is sound because the polls show that the vast majority supports it.

Bandwagon

6. By a margin of two to one, shoppers prefer Brand X to any of the leading competitors. Reason enough to buy Brand X.
Bandwagon

7. What if your bank fails and takes your savings? Buy diamonds – the safe investment.

Appeal to fear

8. There is virtually no tar in these cigarettes.

Misapplied euphemism

9. It has been estimated that illegal aliens are costing taxpayers in excess of $5 billion a year. Should our senior citizens be denied full healthcare benefits, Should our children suffer overcrowded classrooms in order to subsidize the costs of illegal aliens?

Appeal to fear

10. There are plenty of people out on the streets waiting to get your job. If you go out on strike, you may find yourself out there with them.

Appeal to fear

11. The natural ay to relieve pain is through our vitamin ointment. It relieves pain from burns, stiff neck, backache, swelling and so forth.

Misapplied euphemism

CRCB Chapter 12

Summary

An argument has two parts, a reason and a conclusion. A reason is what supports the conclusion and a conclusion is a judgment, decision or opinion. Some word clues for reasons are in view of the facts, because, as indicated by and finally. Some word clues for conclusions are hence, as a result, shows that, then, and so. Arguments can be identified by these words. There ate two basic kinds of arguments, inductive and deductive. Deductive reasoning involves an instance of a general principal and applies a conclusion. Inductive reasoning involves drawing a general conclusion from several facts. Arguments must be evaluated dependability by verifying the source. Facts must be distinguished from opinion. Fallacious arguments need to be detected. Types of logical fallacies include either/or thinking, hasty generalizations, red herrings, false cause, slippery slope, ad hominem and circular reasoning.

Exercises

1. a. I need to study more effectively. – Conclusion
b. I failed the last exam. – Reason

2. a. I feel much better today. – Reason
b. I must be eating better. – Conclusion

3. a. Therefore, the legislature needs to address the AIDS issue. – Conclusion
b. It is estimated that 1 to 2 million Americans are infected with the virus that causes AIDS. – Reason
c. In 1996 more children and women continued to get AIDS. – Reason

4. a. Jason is guilty. – Conclusion
b. Two eyewitnesses saw Jason commit the crime. – Reason
c. Jason had three pieces of the stolen jewelry in his pocket. – Reason
d. Jason’s fingerprints matched those of the crime scene. – Reason

5. a. The results of exercise include better, more restful sleep. – Reason
b. Exercise lowers the risk of heart attack. – Reason
c. There are several benefits of exercising. – Conclusion

TFY Chapter 9

Summary

An argument presents a side to an issue of controversy. Questions must be asked regarding what is the viewpoint, what is the issue, whether it is an argument or a report, what is the structure of the argument and what are the strengths and weaknesses. Arguments have either inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning draws a conclusion from smaller elements, while deductive reasoning draws conclusions from examples of a main point. Reasoning is used to support the conclusion of an argument. A conclusion is the last step in this reasoning process, but is not necessarily explicit. The reasons may lead to an inference instead. In an argument, a person is attempting to defend a claim in an attempt to persuade. They can be disguised as presentations of the facts in an attempt to slant the argument. A report only states facts, leaving the reader to draw his own conclusions. When evaluating an argument, it is necessary to consider the reasons supporting the conclusion, find hidden assumptions, detect slanted language, find logical fallacies and consider missing, false and contradictory information. I often hear poor arguments when I listen to talk radio in my car. Probably the most common one is over the issue of the “war on terror”. Supporters of former president Bush 43 will argue that because there has not been another terrorist attack on American soil since 9/11, the war is successful. This is a kind of circular reasoning that does not consider the attacks in Spain and Britain, or explain why we are safe when Osama bin Laden is still operating in an area where he is safe. Nor is growing instability in the Middle East considered. The fact that America has not been since 9/11 is a reliable predictor that there will not be another attack in the future.

Exercises

1. Frequent snacks of high-energy food are not harmful to backpackers. Indeed, hikers are found to have more energy and less weariness if they snack every hour.

2. Broadcast television is not appropriate in the courtroom. The relentless pressure of the media threatens the balance between the First Amendment’s press freedom and the Sixth amendment’s fair trial rights.

3. Whereas birth is the cause of celebration, death has become a dreaded and unspeakable issue to be avoided by every means possible in our modern society. Perhaps it is death that reminds of our human vulnerability despite all our technological advances.

4. Do not stop thinking of life as an adventure. You have no security unless you live bravely, excitingly and imaginatively; unless you choose a challenge instead of a competence.

5. There is nothing like the taste of fresh, hot brownies. Bake your with Bakelee’s Brownie Mix.

6. Not doubt you should have the right to allow a patient to die. No doctor is God.

7. Videos are a good way to entertain children. You can control what you watch, and there are many worthwhile films to choose from.

8. Since the 1920s, sperm counts have decline among American men. The underlying factors are uncertain, but the factors of stress and toxic chemicals are being considered.

9. If only one percent of car owners did not use their cars for one day a week, they would save 42 million gallons of gas a year and keep 840 tons of CO2 out of the atmosphere.

10. Because of their greater use of prescription drugs, women turn up in hospital room more frequently than men.

CRCB Chapter 4

Summary

Efficient reading is the ability to read and comprehend necessary material in an appropriate amount of time. Comprehension is the primary goal, not saving time. Studying is more efficient when you are most alert, so schedule your study time accordingly. Keep track of your reading rates, so that you can plan your study hours. The keys to efficient reading are: Reading quickly when appropriate, skimming, regressing, subvocalizing and pacing.

Exercises

1. Which of the following statements is not accurate according to the excerpt?

Previous traumatic experiences, especially sexual abuse, are associated with most prostitutes’ choice of employment.

2. Which of the following statements is true according to the excerpt?

Almost nine out of ten Ranch prostitutes had earned their general equivalency diplomas or graduated from high school.

3. According to the excerpt, what is the reason why streetwalkers rarely become regular brothel prostitutes?

Brothels have lots of rules and mandatory confinement.

4. According to the author, the prostitutes she investigated ate the Mustang Ranch were

Women very committed to their families.

5. In your opinion, the author’s attitude toward the prostitutes at Mustang Ranch is

Accepting.

The author began by questioning many assumptions about prostitutes, such as drug use and previous trauma. She saw no pattern to support these assumptions. She found that many prostitutes are religious and driven by family values.

TFY Chapter 8

Summary

A viewpoint is the perspective that one has. Viewpoints are biases based on experience, often mistaken for reality. The experience may be individual or group based. Examples of group experience are ethnicity, religion or political. Literature requires a viewpoint, whether it is first person, third person or multiple viewpoints. Our biases can unconscious as easily as our assumptions and opinions, and it is just as necessary to be aware of them. For example, take the heated issue of “driving while black”. To a police officer, profiling may be a valuable tool for catching criminals, given the over represented demographic of young black males and crime. But to a young black male driving to work at the rate of speed of the traffic flow, somewhat over the speed limit, who is picked out by a police officer will likely feel a target. I have experienced a similar kind of bias while riding a motorcycle. There is nothing like being followed by a police car four feet behind you at freeway speeds to make you feel like a target, especially when the officer pulls you over. It is a chilling experience that makes you appreciate the viewpoint of the young black male. Today, in politics, the old paradigm of left, right and center is outdated. Viewpoints have become much more nuanced. Historically the two-party system has incorporated diverse viewpoints, but currently the ideological left and right wings of our major parties dominate opinion, much to the frustration of the public, whose viewpoint is closer to a more pragmatic center. When gathering information from the various media, beware of the viewpoints of the outlets. Even the most “objective” reporters have their own viewpoints and are often under pressure to present news that is sensational rather than relevant. The death of Ana Nicole Smith is an example of sensationalism. Is that story more relevant than our wars and economy?

Exercises

True or false:

1. Viewpoints can be either conscious or unconsciously assumed.

True

2. To be exterior to one’s own viewpoint is to see it objectively as one viewpoint among many.

True

3. Egocentrism means being absorbed in one’s personal viewpoint without being able to put oneself in other people’s shoes.

True

4. Religiocentrism means believing one’s own country is morally superior to any other.

False

5. Nations tend to become more ethnocentric during wartime.

True

6. Authors only tell their stories from one viewpoint.

False

7. Conservatives are prominent in the Republican Party.

True

8. Liberals are best known for their opposition to programs such as social welfare.

False

9. A newspaper editor implies the relative importance of a new story by the framing given to the story.

True
10. We communicate best when we ignore the viewpoints of others.

False

CRCB Chapter 14

Summary

The Internet is a powerful tool, once a luxury, now a necessity. You can learn about virtually anything, but you cannot trust every internet source. It is important to question what you read. Reading critically on the Internet requires the use of 2RCA – Relevance, Reliability, Credibility and Accuracy. To find a relevant source, you must first define your topic. You must understand your purpose in order to identify key words that you will use to find the best sources. If you use too many keywords, you will get too many possible sources, so keep the keywords to the essential ones. Once you have located several relevant sources, check them for reliability, credibility and accuracy. It is best to be an “open-minded skeptic”, keeping in mind that not everything printed is true. Facts can seem weird, but be true, or seem reasonable and be false. There are several websites that vet other site for accuracy, such as clearinghouse.net. Consider the source. Check for supporting documentation. Ask yourself if the site is up to date and is the site easy to navigate. When I look for information on the Internet, I often go to well-known websites that have solid reputations. I avoid site that make fantastic or outlandish claims and crosscheck new sites against established, reliable sites.

Exercises

Evaluate the website http/www.d-b.net/dti/

1. What is its title?

Clones-R-Us

2. What is the main idea of the article?

The main idea is to sell cloning to the public.

3. What do you already know about the topic?

I know that cloning is a very difficult process. There are many failures for every successful clone in mammals, because the implanting of DNA into an egg is very difficult, the clone grows to size many times grater that normal before birth and the biological clock of DNA is not reset by cloning as occurs in normal reproduction. Cloning of humans is unlikely to have occurred.

4. Explain why it would or would not be a good site to use as a source. Provide examples to support your conclusion.

I would doubt the reliability of this site for many reasons. First, it operates in several third world countries, where regulation would be nonexistent. Showing a baby implies that humans can be cloned, for which there is no documented proof. Fantastic claims are made, including a guarantee of quality, custom or “designer” cloning, fast delivery and no paperwork. This site is obviously a scam.

TFY Chapter 7

Summary

Evaluations are value judgments, not to be confused with facts. They can be open or hidden. Evaluations are done all the time, whether we are aware or not. We evaluate what we buy, what we want to eat, what career we wish to pursue and many other things. Words that indicate an evaluation are subjective rather than objective, words such as good or bad. The words can be emotional, such as fun or painful. We must guard against premature evaluations. One glaring, historical example occurred after the attacks on 9/11. When President Bush pressed Congress to allow America to go to war against Iraq, there was little skepticism for his claims of weapons of mass destruction. Congress accepted his word and voted to allow the war. Had the Bush administration allowed the inspectors to complete their job and evaluated the situation in Iraq based on the most complete set of facts available, war would likely have been averted. Instead, America is paying a steep price in treasure and American and Iraqi lives. We need to recognize manipulative evaluations. Ann Coulter attributes the entire belief system of the left to snobbery, from promoting immoral behavior to tree hugging, dismissing any other reason for leftists’ beliefs, in an effort to advance her own agenda. The skilled evaluations of experts are valuable to us, and we pay these experts for them. We trust their expertise to help us make wise choices. Those who use propaganda spread it to manipulate our opinions. Advertisements are a common form of propaganda. Every brand is the best, but how can they all be the best? You need to recognize when you are being propagandized. You will find evaluative words instead of facts.

Exercises

1. What evaluations does the author offer in her title and subtitle?

The author makes the claim that boxing is violent and brutal.

2. How does the author open this essay by finding irony in two situations?

The author finds irony in that Million Dollar Baby did not ignite a debate on the boxing violence. She also states that boxing, in another venue, would be a violent felony.

3. What three facts does she offer to support her evaluation of boxing as a brutal and violent sport?

The author cites a notorious quote from Mike Tyson, a boxing database and the stance taken by the AMA on boxing.

4. What contradictory evaluations does she describe in the last two paragraphs of this review?

The author says some moviegoers see Million Dollar Bay as a condemnation of boxing, while others see it as glorifying boxing.